Minh Hai Melaleuca Forest
Location:	9°08'-9°30'N, 104°51'-10S°15'E; north and west of Ca Mau Provincial Town, Minh Hai Province.
Area:	163,000 ha.
Altitude	0.4-1.0m.
Biogeographical Province:	4.5.1.
Wetland type:	15, 19 & 21.
Description of site:	A large area of seasonally flooded Melaleuca swamp forest in western Minh Hai Province near the shores of the Gulf of Thailand. There are some open swampy areas on the fringes of the forest, e.g. at Ngoc Hoang, and some areas of rice paddies. The forest floods during the rainy season and dries out in the dry season; the maximum depth of water varies from 0.5 to 1.0m. The water is fresh with a pH of 4.5-5.0. Most of the area is covered in a layer of peat 2-3m deep, and the soils have a high acid sulphate content; in the Vo Doi Protected Forest (3,945 ha), there are 3,370 ha of peat soils (83.9%) and 572 ha of clay soils (14.5%). In the past, this region was famous for its dense Melaleuca forests. However, during the war years the region suffered serious damage from bombing and the extensive use of napalm and toxic chemicals, and since then, large areas have been cleared for timber and agricultural land or destroyed by forest fires. Only some 63.000 ha of forest remain, and much of this, such as the U Minh Thuong forest, is in very poor condition. The U Minh ha forest, which includes the Vo Doi Protected Forest, is in better condition, with trees approximately 4-5m tall and 0.2-0.25m in diameter. Some reafforestation has taken place in recent years.
Climatic conditions:	Tropical monsoonal climate with a pronounced dry season from November to April and a rainy season during the southwest monsoon from May to October. The average annual rainfall is 2,350 mm (minimum 1,940 mm, maximum 2,810 mm), and the mean annual temperature 26.5°C (mean monthly minimum 24.0°C). The mean relative humidity is 85.6%, and the mean annual evaporation 1,005 mm.
Principal vegetation:	Melaleuca leucodendron is the dominant tree species throughout the area; the creeper Stenochlaena palustris is abundant in the understorey. In the slightly higher areas, Alstonia spatulata is the most common species. Swampy areas support dense growths of aquatic grasses, reeds and Nymphaea sp. About 40 species of aquatic plants including seven species of Cyperus have been recorded in the Vo Doi Protected Forest.
Land tenure:	State owned (Minh Hai Province). The Vo Doi Protected Forest is owned by the People's Committee of Minh Hai Province.
Conservation measures taken:	In 1975, the provincial authorities initiated a programme to restore the Melaleuca forests to their natural condition. Some 5,000 ha of the forest have already been replanted by the Song Trem Forest Station, although this. has been complicated by the persistent toxic effects of defoliant herbicides used during the war. A complicated system of canals and dikes has been constructed within the forest to facilitate the manipulation of water levels and to prevent forest fires during the dry season. Observation towers ten metres in height have been constructed to provide an early warning system against fires. In 1985, the National Government established a protected area of 3,945 ha in the U Minh ha forest. This reserve, the Vo Doi Protected Forest, is situated in Tran Van Thoi District, 30 km west of Ca Mau and 12 km from the Gulf of Thailand (9°08'-9°22'N, 104°5l'-105°00'E). A management committee has been set up, and 20 foresters have been employed to protect the reserve. Former rice-growing areas within the protected area have been replanted with Melaleuca.
Conservation measures proposed:	A management plan for the rational utilization of the forest resources is being developed by the local authorities. There are plans to build a Centre for Melaleuca Forest Studies in the Vo Doi Protected Forest.
Land use:	Fishing and harvesting of forest products such as timber, firewood and honey. The leaves of Melaleuca are processed to produce essential oils for export, and the creeper Stenochlaena palustris is used as string. The Melaleuca forests grow on sulphate soils generally unsuitable for agriculture, and only a small part of the area is under permanent cultivation. Approximately 1,380 people were living in and around the Vo Doi Protected Forest in 1985. Most of these were dependent on agriculture, mainly the cultivation of rice and bananas.
Possible changes in land use:	It has recently been suggested that the peat resources (estimated at about 60 million tonnes) should be exploited on a commercial basis. This suggestion has already met with considerable opposition because of the profound effects that large-scale exploitation of the peat would have on the water regime and the forestry, wildlife and fishery resources of the region.
Disturbances and threats:	The most serious threat to the Melaleuca forest is fire. This can be particularly damaging when the underlying peat begins to burn. The frequency of forest fires has increased considerably in recent years, and in some cases, hundreds of hectares of forest have been lost. In most cases, the fires are caused by human activities such as rat-catching and honey-gathering. The other main threats to the forest are over-exploitation of the timber resources, forest clearance for human settlement and agriculture (particularly bananas), and peat extraction.
Economic and social values:	The Melaleuca forest is very important for the local communities; it provides a valuable source of fuelwood and timber as well as a variety of other forest products. The forest produces a large amount of leaf litter which constitutes the first link in the food chain of many aquatic animals and supports a significant fishery. Fish production in the canal system of U Minh Thuong is estimated at about 50 metric tonnes per year. The forest yields a rich harvest of wild honey; as many as 260 people in four small villages in U Minh Thuong earn their living from honey. The peat is a valuable source of fuel and fertilizer. The forests create an attractive landscape and have some potential for nature-oriented tourism.
Fauna:	The Melaleuca forests of the Mekong Delta were formerly very rich in wildlife, supporting a great diversity of mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians, and providing nesting sites for huge numbers of large waterbirds. The wildlife was drastically depleted during the war and as a result of subsequent forest clearance and forest fires. Increased protection and restoration measures in recent years have, however, led to a partial recovery in some species, particularly waterbirds. A recent survey of the Vo Doi Protected Forest recorded 23 species of mammals, 91 species of birds, 36 species of reptiles and 11 species of amphibians. The mammalian fauna formerly included Tiger Panthera tigris, but this is now extinct in the area. Mammals still present include Cervus unicolor, Muntiacus muntjak, Sus scrofa, Felis chaus, F. lenimincki, F. viverrina, Viverra zibetha, Lutra perspicillata, Macaca mulatta, Tupaia gus, Manis javanica and Callosciurus pygerythrus. However, the populations are small because of frequent forest fires and poaching. Clumps of Alstonia spatulata on high ground provide roosting sites for thousands of fruit bats Cynopterus brachyotis and Megaerops ecaudasus. The bird fauna includes many wetland birds such as herons, egrets, storks, ibises, ducks, rails and shorebirds, along with a wide variety of typical lowland forest birds. In the past, the forests supported the largest breeding colonies of waterbirds in the delta; in 1978, the main colony at Khanh Lam (U Minh Forest) contained Phalacrocorax niger, Anhinga melanogaster, Egretta garzetta, E. alba, Ardea purpurea, Mycteria leucocephala, Ciconia episcopus, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, Leptoptilos javanicus, L. dubius, Threskiornis melanocephalus and Plegadis falcinellus. The region also supported populations of the endangered Milky Stork Mycteria cinerea, White-shouldered Ibis Pseudibis davisoni and Giant Ibis Thaumatibis gigantea. However, several large forest fires and the recent expansion of agricultural areas have destroyed much of the nesting habitat and the large colonies of waterbirds have disappeared. Some herons, egrets and storks still nest in the area, but L. dubius, P. davisoni and T. gigantea may now be extinct in the southern delta, and M. cinerea has become very rare. Waterfowl recorded during recent surveys include Phalacrocorax carbo, P. fuscicollis, P. niger, Anhinga melanogaster, Ixobrychus sinensis, I. cinnamomeus, I. flavicollis, Nycticorax nycticorax, Ardeola bacchus, A. speciosa, Egretta garzetta, E. intermedia, E. alba. Ardea purpurea, A. cinerea, A. sumatrana, Mycteria leucocephala, Anastomus oscitans, Ciconia episcopus, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, Leptoptilos javanicus, Threskiornis melanocephalus, Dendrocygna javanica, Nettapus coromandelianus, Rallus siriatus, Rallina fasciata, Gallicrex cinerea, Porphyrio porphyrio, Rostratula benghalensis and Glareola maldivarum. Wintering ducks and shorebirds include Anas crecca, Himantopus himantopus. Tringa glareola, Actitis hypoleucos and Gallinago gallinago. The area remains rich in birds of prey such as Elanus caeruleus. Milvus migrans, Haliastur indus, Circus (aeruginosus) spilonotus and C. melanoleucos, and supports five species of kingfishers, Ceryle rudis, Alcedo atthis, Pelargopsis capensis, Halcyon pileata and H. chioris. Reptiles include Python rnolurus, Oligodon cychirus, Oryophis prasinus, Ptyas korros. P. mucosus, Trimeresurus allolabris, Bulgarus fasciatus. Naja naja, Calotes versicolor, Gekko gekko, Mabouya multifasciata and Varanus salvator. Amphibians include Ichthyophis glutinosus, Koioula pulchra, Bufo melanostictus, Oedozyga limma, Rana limnocharis. R. macrodactyla and R. rugulosa. The most abundant fishes are Ophiocephalus striatus, Anabas testudineus, Fluta alba and Clarias macrocephalus. The freshwater shrimp Macrobrachium rosenbergii also occurs in the area.
Special floral values:	The region supports the most extensive stands of Melaleuca forest remaining in Vietnam.
Research and facilities:	Preliminary faunal and floral surveys have been carried out in the area.
Criteria for inclusion:	123.
References:	Karpowicz (1985); Le Dien Duc (1984); Ly Tho (1985); Phung Trung Ngan (1987); Vo Quy (1984); Vo Quy & Le Dien Duc (1984).
Source:	Le Dien Duc and Derek A. Scott.