(Refer to Map 9 of Appendix for MPA sites and other relevant areas)

8.1 Coastal and Marine Ecosystems
The coastline of Thailand falls under the influence of two oceans; the East Coast forms the Gulf of Thailand, which belongs to the Pacific, and the West Coast borders the Andamen Sea facing the Indian Ocean. The coral reefs, which are mostly small fringing reefs, are found both in the Gulf of Thailand (74.8 km2) and the Andaman Sea (78.56 km2) (Chansang 2000). Due to the strong Southwest monsoon especially from May to October, most reefs are found on the eastern sides of these islands, notably along the Surin-Similan chain of islands. Mangrove development is favoured in the Gulf of Thailand due to high sedimentation rates while the growth of corals is limited to islands far from the shore and at lower diversity than in the Andaman Sea. Around 1,946 km2 of mangroves remain, and only 2.2% (or 261 km2) of these is protected (MacKinnon 1997).

8.2 Significant Species
A total of 240 species of scleractinian coral in 67 genera have been recorded in Thailand (Spalding 2000). There are over 300 major reef groups covering an estimated area of 12,000 km2 divided into four areas: i) inner part of the Gulf of Thailand (Chonburi); ii) east side of the Gulf (Rayong and Trad); iii) west side of the Gulf (Prachuap Kirikhan, Chumporn, and Surathani); and iv) along the Andaman Sea coastline (Ranong, Phuket, Phang-Nga, Krabi, Trang, and Satun), where about 55% of Thailand’s reefs occur (Wilkinson 1998). About 35 species of mangroves and 15 species of seagrass have been reported (Spalding 2000).

Five species of marine turtles (Green, Hawksbill, Loggerhead, Olive Ridley and Leatherback) have been recorded in Thailand (UNEP/IUCN 1988). Dugongs are found mainly along the southern part of the West Coast in the Andaman Sea and the eastern part of the Gulf of Thailand (Nateekanjanalarp and Sudara 1992).

8.3 Legislation and Management Framework
The establishment of national parks and fish sanctuaries falls under the National Park Act of 1961 and Fisheries Law of 1947. Furthermore, under the National Environment Quality Act, certain areas can be declared as “areas under protection,” and any measures deemed necessary can be imposed (Chansang 2000).

In 1993, the Department of Fisheries initiated a programme for marine and fisheries protected areas to enhance the protection and conservation of breeding grounds in the Gulf of Thailand (Agenda 21). Since 1995, the Department also has been implementing a coral reef management programme, which includes research, training and public education, for reefs outside marine parks (Chansang 2000).

There are five categories of protected areas: national parks, national marine parks, wildlife sanctuaries (in some translations, “wildlife conservation areas”), forest parks and non-hunting areas. National marine parks exist primarily to protect areas of coastal habitat and islands, and appear to have little relevance to watershed management; some, however, extend inland to include even mountainous terrain (from Clarke 1999):

The National Park Act of 1961 states that a national park is to be, ‘preserved in its natural state for the public’s education and enjoyment’. National marine parks have similar functions. Most are former national parks that have been reclassified.

The Wildlife Protection and Preservation Act of 1960 states that wildlife sanctuaries are areas for, ‘the conservation of wildlife habitat so that wildlife can freely breed and increase their populations in the natural environment’.

Forest parks are forested areas that have at least one significant feature such as waterfalls, large trees or geomorphologic formations. These are provided for under the National Reserve Forest Act of 1964, with the chief purpose of providing sites for local tourism and recreation.

Non-hunting areas protect land that is open to consumptive uses such as fishing and gathering of non-timber forest products but from which hunting is excluded.

The government agencies responsible for MPA management are the Royal Forest Department (RFD), which is responsible for marine park management, and the Department of Fisheries, which is responsible for aquatic resource management (Chansang 2000). The Marine National Park Division of the RFD is mandated to manage marine parks and implement the relevant laws and regulations.

The National Mangrove Committee formed in 1978 screens development projects to be located in mangrove areas and acts as a policy advisory body to the government. The National Park Committee focuses more on marine parks.

There is a growing trend of community-based management of coastal and marine resource conservation with the assistance of NGOs, especially in southern Thailand where trial projects have been encouraging (Sudara 1995). An active non-government organisation (NGO) network in Thailand is assisting communities with the local management of coral reefs, and restoration of forests and mangroves (Wilkinson 1998). DANCED has funded NGOs to strengthen their activities but most of these activities are not in MPAs (Piyathip, pers. comm.)

8.4 Extent of Existing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) System
Twenty-one National Marine Parks have been declared (Piyathip, pers comm.; Chansang 2000). Two other MPAs have been designated as non-hunting areas but also encompass coral and mangrove habitats (see Table 8.1). Of the 21 National Marine Parks, 13 parks include coral reef areas, most of which are located in the Andaman Sea and only five are located in the Gulf of Thailand (Chansang 2000). Approximately 60% of the coral reef area is included within a protected area. There is no available information on the Fisheries Sanctuaries.

8.5 Proposed Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
There are no known officially proposed MPAs in the country.

8.6 Evaluation of MPAs - Status, Threats and Management
Conditions and Threats: Reef surveys under the ASEAN-Australian-LCR Project indicated that over 60% of the major reefs had poor (<25%) or fair (25-50%) coral cover, and less than 36% had good (50-75%) or excellent (>75%) coral cover (Wilkinson et al, 1994). In the Gulf of Thailand, coral cover and overall reef fish abundance were both found to be higher on the west coast than on the east where fishing pressure, including destructive methods using dynamite, poison, traps and spear guns, was higher (Satumanatpan and Sudara 1992).

Sedimentation, nutrient pollution from development on the land and overfishing (particularly by large trawlers now fishing close to the reefs) are causing major damage to the reefs of Thailand, and over 60% of the reefs has less than 50% live coral cover (Wilkinson 1998). Other activities such as conversion of mangrove forest to shrimp farms, excessive tourism activities, and improper management of pollution in the areas have further contributed to the degradation of coastal habitats and resources. Furthermore, oil and gas operations and transportation also increase the risk to the coastal and marine environment (Agenda 21). Agenda 21 also mentions the main sources of pollution affecting ocean and coastal resources. For land-based pollution, the primary sources are domestic sources, industrial development and tourism areas, especially beach resorts and agriculture and aquaculture activities. Pollution from non-point sources include agriculture and urban runoff and coastal erosion. The primary sources of seabased pollution are offshore oil and gas operations, wastes from maritime transportation, shipping, oil spills, dredging and the red tide and harmful algal bloom.

The loss of seagrass beds in the Andaman Sea has been attributed to increased siltation and use of push nets and bottom trawls in fishing (Chansang and Poovachiranon 1992). This may have contributed to the slow decline of the dugong population, especially in the Gulf of Thailand, where they are not only killed accidentally by fishing gear, but are also intentionally hunted for food (Nateekanjanalarp and Sudara 1992).

Results from the questionnaire for ranking the threats to MPAs indicate that overall, domestic pollution and development are perceived as the most serious threats, followed by tourism activities, siltation at sea and destructive fishing (Figure 8.1). The latter includes not only dynamite and cyanide fishing, but also illegal trawling at a few sites, though these activities are becoming less of a threat as tourism becomes heavier. In general, over fishing and destructive fishing intensify at sites in the Andaman Sea where development and pollution are less prominent than in the Gulf of Thailand (Table 8.2). Although not indicated in the graph, local outbreaks of the crown-of-thorn starfish have been reported in the Gulf of Thailand and the outbreaks in the Andaman Sea have increased significantly since 1982 (Sudara 1995).

Collection of other marine resources (particularly seashells) as tourist souvenirs and for export and aquarium fish trade seems to have an equally damaging impact as that of destructive fishing outside established parks. Despite the ban on coral collection since 1978, local collection of coral for sale as souvenir and for export still existed in the late 80’s (Sudara and Nateekarnchanalap 1988). When tourism boomed in the 1980s, there was a rush for development resulting in a lack of planning. Beach areas such as Pattaya, became internationally infamous as examples of how development can lead to environmental degradation and pollution. These problems have now shifted to the islands in the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea. In recent years, Hat Nopharat Thara - Mu Ko Phi Phi and Khao Laem Ya - Mu Ko Samet have been affected by the rapid growth in tourism activities (Table 8.2). In just one year of tourist resort development on the islands of Samui, Pha Ngan, Tao and Ang Thong Marine National Park, coral reefs were significantly degraded to a cover of 20% (Sudara 1995). Although the revenue generated from the tourism industry is high (e.g. Phuket earned 127 M baht or US$ 5M a year from tour companies, tour boat operators, dive shops and curio shops; CRMP, 1991), environmental damage through habitat loss is usually not counted.

The large-scale clearance of mangroves for shrimp pond and development projects, though not directly addressed in this section, is one of the major causes of siltation on the marine environment and coral reefs. The destruction of mangroves is most severe in the Gulf of Thailand where only 0.5-8% of the original mangroves remains, the worst situation being in the inner part (Sudara 1995). Tin mining in mangrove swamp areas and shallow waters by dredging have also caused the siltation and smothering of corals, notably in NW Phuket and Phangnga Bay (Chansang 1988; Chansang and Phongsuan 1994).

Management: Management of MPAs is generally weak, as the Marine National Division has a limited number of qualified staff and expertise and funds for marine resources and MPA management. Encroachment into and vandalism within MPAs often occur with little control. Mu Ko Similan and Mu Ko Surin are believed to be the best managed marine parks in the country although some degrees of degradation have occurred due to frequenttourism activities.

 

At Sattaheep south of Pattaya in the eastern Gulf of Thailand, the Navy strictly patrols the islands for turtle conservation, which also keeps the coral communities in very good condition (Sudara 1995). The proposed management plan of the west Gulf of Thailand (including Ang Thong, Samui and Pha Ngan Islands) divided the coral reefs into three zones for preservation, common uses or conservation, and private development (Sudara et al. 1991).

8.7. Gaps in the MPA System
The National Park Act does not currently have specific provisions for marine parks (Wells 1988).

Enforcement/Management. Marine park management has often focused on accommodating visitor use rather than on resource protection and enforcement (ICRI 1997). Serious conflicts between resource users as well as jurisdictional conflicts have also limited the effective management of MPAs. The major problems in marine park management has been improper planning in designating park areas, lack of manpower and equipment, lack of proper management plan, and inadequate technical know-how of park officials (Chansang 2000).

Public Participation and Education. Public participation or involvement in all aspects of marine resources management, from policy formulation to actual management, should be encouraged and continued. Public involvement is starting to be employed in coral reef management, especially in reef areas outside marine parks (Chansang 2000). Awareness campaigns may also need to be strengthened to facilitate public involvement in management matters.

8.8 Priority Sites
Among the 16 national parks, three are recognised internationally as globally significant: Mu Ko Similan and Mu Ko Surin form a World Heritage Site and Khao Sam Roi Yot is a RAMSAR site. Tarutao, though rejected as a World Heritage Site, is now an ASEAN Heritage Site and warrants regional priority due to its relatively undisturbed reefs despite the occurrence of crown-of-thorns infestation, some dynamite fishing and siltation from logging. Ao Phangna, which contains the last remaining substantial stand of mangroves in the country and Hat Chao Mai, which is important for dugongs and has relatively undisturbed coral reefs, are rated as national priority sites. Changthaburi-Trat is another priority area for dugong conservation.

8.9. Priority Actions
Many of the recommendations focus on finding ways to strike a balance between shortterm
economic benefits and sustainable environment and development, which has been
identified as the major obstacle against success in the management of MPAs and marine
conservation as a whole.

A. Carry out research on economic gains from conservation versus costs due to environmental degradation and/or loss, and disseminate the findings to government and decision makers.

B. Study the issue on eco-tourism devlopment to generate guidelines that would minimise impacts on the environment.

C. Develop monitoring and restoration programmes on critical and damaged habitats.

D. Promote informal public education with emphases on protected areas and endangered species; strengthen dugong conservation activities.

E. Develop national and regional databases on MPAs with frequent inputs from and exchange among nationals.

F. Strengthen networking of environmental NGOs within the country.

G. Review the MPA system and identify where MPA plans are being implemented and where enforcement is working. Use these MPAs as models for others.

A National Coral Reef Monitoring Program has been proposed, especially as Thailand’s tourism industry and coastal development continues to expand in the coming years (ICRI 1997).