(Refer to Map 2 of Appendix for MPA sites and other relevant areas)

7.1 Coastal and Marine Ecosystems
The coastal and marine ecosystems of Singapore are very limited and modified by development and the port industry, which is one of the biggest income-earning businesses in the country. Port limits extend to almost all the entire territorial waters, and reclamation has transformed almost the entire southern and northeastern coasts of the main island considerably (Chou 1995).

The steep beach front along the southeastern coast was once composed of sandy beaches and mudflats. Original rocky shores are found mainly on the southern offshore islands and small parts of the northern coast. Around 22 km2 of mangroves (or less than 1% of the original mangroves) remain in Singapore and none is protected (MacKinnon 1997), except for 87 ha at the Sungei Buloh Nature Park. These are confined to isolated patches on the northern coast and northern offshore islands of Pulau Ubin and Pulau Tekong, and the eastern shore of Pulau Semakau in the south. The mangroves of Pulau Semakau have since been cleared for the large offshore landfill, but the project involves replanting of mangroves at other sites of Pulau Semakau in order to maintain the ecosystem. Seagrass beds can be found on the extensive reef flats of Cyrene reef and west of Pulau Semakau.

7.2 Significant Species
The coral reefs are exceptionally diverse (197 species of scleractinian corals from 55 genera) despite the high turbidity in Singapore waters (Chou 1995). There are 31 mangrove and 11 seagrass species found in the country (Spalding 2000). Marine turtles (Green, Hawksbill, Ridley’s), dugongs, dolphins (Indo-Pacific humpback) and four species of giant clams are also known to occur.

7.3 Legislation and Management Framework
The most significant government document regarding nature conservation and environmental management is the national concept plan “Living the Next Lap” or Green Plan” of 1991 (Chou and Goh 1998). The Plan mandates that 5% (3,310 ha) of the total land area be set aside for nature conservation. It has been further developed for implementation by an Inter-Ministerial Steering Committee, under which the Ministry of National Development and other government agencies and a non-government organisation (NGO) form a workgroup. In 1993, an Action Programme of the Green Plan was passed to ensure the designation of 19 land conservation areas and protection of four coral reef areas against commercial harvesting. The latter involves strengthening enforcement by the Coast Guard, monitoring of water quality and reclamation projects, and awareness programmes. The Land Office grants coral collect permits only for scientific, conservation and research purposes. The “Green Plan” is presently under review and public consultation is being sought for the preparation of “Concept 2001”.

There are currently no specific laws for the protection of mangrove forests and existing seagrass beds (ICRI 1997).

The Maritime and Port Authority (MPA) of Singapore is responsible for marine environment protection from sea-based activities. MPA espouses a comprehensive approach towards the protection of the marine environment, based on prevention and preparedness.

Non-government organisations (NGOs) such as the Nature Society (Singapore) and the Singapore Environmental Council are actively assisting in raising public and government awareness on environmental protection and nature conservation. The Republic of
Singapore Yacht Club, Singapore Institute of Biology, and Singapore Underwater Federation jointly launched a reef survey and conservation planning programme in 1987, which resulted in the proposal of the four coral reef areas for conservation. Current NGO initiatives include coral translocation, reef protection, and education projects. Since 1996, a Singapore Reef and Marine Conservation Committee was formed to coordinate reef and marine conservation efforts. It is composed of representatives from Raffles Marina, Republic of Singapore Yacht Club, Singapore Institute of Biology, Singapore Underwater Federation and Nature Society (Singapore).

7.4 Extent of Existing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) System
A network of 259 ha. of mangrove areas (about 50% of all remaining mangrove areas) is conserved, many of which are integrated into development projects nearby.

Only two locations are considered as MPAs. The first is the 87-ha Sungei Buloh Nature Park located along the northern coast of the mainland. It is a coastal mangrove habitat. The second is a group of southern offshore islands (St. John’s, Kusu, Lazarus and Sister’s) designated as a Marine Nature Area in 1996. These extend to about 500 ha.

7.5 Proposed Marine Protected Areas
Khatib Bongsu mangrove is being proposed to be designated as a nature park (Chou 1995). Four coral reef areas (total 3,725 ha) have been identified for protection in the Action Programme of the Green Plan: St.John’s Islands, Pulau Hantu, Pulau Semakau and Pulau Sudong, all in the south (Cheung 1995). Of these, the St. John’s group of Islands was designated as a Marine Nature Area in 1998. There are no other MPAs in Singapore.

7.6 Evaluation of MPAs - Status, Threats and Management
The Sungei Buloh Nature Park is effectively managed and backed by adequate surveillance and enforcement. It has a suitable monitoring and research programme to support management planning. In contrast, the St. John’s group of islands, designated as Marine Nature Area, has no clear management plan. Whatever form of management there is appears to be confined to the terrestrial component of the islands where certain trees/plants considered to be of natural heritage value cannot be destroyed. Little can be said about the management of the marine component except for the insistence of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) in connection with the proposed development on the islands (EIAs are not mandatory in Singapore). Furthermore, there is no surveillance or enforcement activity for the marine environment. Over the past few years, the reefs have suffered from the impacts of heavy sedimentation from human activities (land reclamation and dumping of earth spoils) at locations beyond the islands’ grouping.

Coastal development stands as the most serious threat to the coastal and marine environment (Figure 7.1). At least 60% of the fringing reefs in the south have been buried by reclamation or transformed into swimming lagoons (Chou 1995). Dredging and marine dumping have also greatly contributed in increasing the sedimentation loading of the waters.

7.7 Gaps in the Existing Marine Protected Area System
Considering the intense competition among users of the limited coastal and marine areas, few areas can be identified for complete protection. Any reef area identified for protection will have to permit multiple use. There is then a growing need to address the lack of institutional mechanisms to establish an integrated management strategy for coastal waters and resources (ICRI 1997).

Enforcement/Management. Marine park management has often focused on accommodating visitor use rather than on resource protection and enforcement (ICRI 1997). Serious conflicts between resource users as well as jurisdictional conflicts have also limited the effective management of MPAs. Another problem is the lack of marine conservation interest on the part of various agencies with jurisdiction over different islands. Most are developing the islands for purely economic reasons and appear unaware of the spirit of the Convention on Biological Diversity, and Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 of theUnited Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro 1992).

7.8 Priority Sites
The Sungei Buloh Nature Park (87 ha) declared in 1993 may be considered of regional priority due to its importance for migratory birds. The three proposed coral reef areas that have yet to be declared for protection are of national significance as they contain the only substantial reefs remaining in the country. Their value in terms of biodiversity, education and awareness building is highly significant despite their small size and disturbed state.

7.9 Priority Actions
The current review of the Green Plan will address the deficiencies that became apparent over these years. These include the lack of a relevant management agency particularly for marine nature conservation. This is a major problem, as no agency appears willing to handle the responsibility of managing marine living resources.