The Directorates under the PHPA are:

(1) Nature Conservation - Provides overall planning of the terrestrial and marine protected areas network, drafting of conservation legislation and the proposal, establishment and management of individual protected areas.

(2) National Parks and Recreation Forest – Oversees the development of the national parks programme.

Cagar Alam (Nature reserve). IUCN category I nature sanctuary which, because of its characteristic plants, animals and/or ecosystems, must be protected and allowed to develop naturally. Activities permitted are non-manipulative research, monitoring and the development of science, education and other activities protecting breeding stock. The government shall manage such areas in order to preserve the species diversity of plants and animals and their ecosystems.

Suaka Margasatwa (Wildlife/Game reserve). IUCN category IV nature sanctuary having high species diversity and/or unique animal species, in which the habitat may be managed to assure the continued existence of these species. Activities are limited to research, monitoring and education. The government shall implement management activities in an effort to preserve the diversity of plant and animal species and their ecosystems. Most of these areas are land-based and designated to protect exploited species such as birds and turtles.

Biosphere Reserve. An area of unique and/or degraded ecosystems, which needs to be protected and conserved for its research and education value. Within the framework of international conservation and for those activities defined in Article 17, “sanctuary reserves” and other specified areas can be established as biosphere reserves.

Kawasan Pelestarian Alam (Nature Conservation Area)
A specific terrestrial or aquatic area where the main functions are to protect life support systems, to preserve diversity of plant and animal species, as well as to conserve living natural resources and their ecosystems for sustainable utilization.

Taman Nasional (National park). IUCN category II nature conservation area of outstanding natural value of national, regional or global significance, which must be large enough for recreational and educational use without affecting the conservation values. These parks are managed through a zoning system for research, science, education, supporting cultivation, recreation and tourism purposes. All national parks must have an approved management plan following the PHPA National Park Planning Guidelines (PHPA 1992) including a zoning plan, an outline of a 25-year strategy for park management, an initial five-year work plan and the first annual management work plan.

Taman Hutan Agung (Grand forest park). A nature conservation area created to provide a collection of indigenous and/or introduced plants and animals for research, science, education, supporting cultivation, culture, recreation and tourism purposes. Taman Wisata Alam (Nature recreation park). IUCN category V nature conservation area which may not have very high conservation value but is managed mainly for recreation and tourism purposes.

Marine protected area categories are Marine Nature Reserve, Marine Wildlife Re serve, Marine National Park and Marine Recreation Park.

Indonesia participates in the World Heritage Convention, the UNESCO Man and Biosphere Programme and the ASEAN Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

3.4 Extent of the Existing MPA System
Information on the MPAs is abundant but sometimes with discrepancies. Lists sometimes include sites with no marine area. Total area figures for MPAs are even more difficult to verify because they may refer to the total area of a coastal protected area or only the marine extension of the reserve. Some sites are primarily terrestrial and encompass less than 30% marine areas. Table 3.3 includes all protected areas that are predominantly marine, are small islands or have a significant marine component (Suharsono, 2001review). Given the size of Indonesia, this list is considered a small start to the longterm process of MPA establishment. This review does not assess the hundreds of coastal protected areas that have a small marine component not recognized by the national
government.

3.5. Proposed MPAs
Among the hundreds of proposed MPAs, some of which have been surveyed by local institutes, only few have been endorsed by the national government. Among the proposed protected areas endorsed are those in or close to Irian Jaya, in northern and southern Sulawesi, in southwest Kalimantan and on the islands west of Sumatra. Most of these areas have coral reefs except Jamursba Medi, which is a sandy coast important for Leatherback turtles and Tanjung Puting, a mangrove area. Most areas lack detailed information on the habitat, species and threats although some might have inaccessible survey reports and notes in Indonesian.

3.6 Evaluation of MPAs - Status, Threats and Management
Indonesian fisheries (for the country as a whole) used to be underexploited (mainly because of underexploited pelagic fisheries; GOI 1997, Hopley and Suharsono 2000). However, the number of motorised fishing boats and overfishing has rapidly increased especially in the west (Priyono and Sumiono 1997). In particular, the threat of overfishing is estimated to be high or moderate around Indonesia except in Kalimantan and Irian Jaya (see Figure 3.1). Attracted by quick economic return, local fishermen sometimes follow illegal fishing practices introduced by outsiders despite being aware of the long-term impacts on the environment and resources (WWF Indonesia 1994). Fishing with explosives, cyanide and bottom trawl are the main types of destructive fishing. There has been an increasing use of hookah and scuba for highly priced products such as groupers, maori wrasse, lobsters and various shells. Destructive fishing is high around Sulawesi, Northwest Sumatra and some areas of West Irian Jaya and moderate in Southeast Sumatra, Nusa Tenggara, Jakarta, between East and West Malaysia and North Irian Jaya (WRI 2002). Turtles and dugong are also being caught illegally. While turtles have been traditionally hunted as part of the rituals and diet, most are now slaughtered for sale to restaurants or souvenir shops in cities. Mining of corals is also a major problem (SMEGOI 1992), e.g. in Seribu, Mentawai (West Sumatra), Riau and Bali (Nontji 2000). The intrusion of technologically sophisticated foreign fishing boats in Indonesian waters is yet another problem (SME-GOI 1992). Law enforcement is weak in eastern Indonesia (GOI 1997).

The top source of domestic, agricultural and industrial pollution is Java. This is where ~55% of the country’s population is concentrated such as in Jakarta and Surabaya. The population of eastern Indonesia is estimated to be 35 million (Hopley & Suharsono 2000). Java and Bali also produce ~70% of the national food supply largely through agriculture (IIED/GOI 1985). Phosphate and nitrate from agriculture and sediments from logging and conversion of salt marshes and mangroves to rice paddies also flow into the marine estuaries (SME-GOI 1992). Land reclamation and other coastal development activities also contribute to poor water quality. World Resources Institute (2002) estimates that Java, Bali, Sulawesi, Northwest and Southeast Sumatra, Nusa Tenggara, Maluku and West Irian Jaya are under high threat from sedimentation and moderate to high threat from coastal development.

Transmigration has also distributed some of this population to other parts of the country with consequent spread of degradation. Already, 60% of Indonesia’s population lives on the coasts. Only 40% of the urban population has their solid wastes collected, while it is much less in rural areas. These wastes are typically burned or dumped in streams or open land (SME-GOI 1992). Shipping, mining and oil exploitation are also potentially significant sources of pollution since oil and tin are among Indonesia’s top exports and ships also frequently traverse the archipelago. Sedimentation due to deforestation is also a significant problem since timber is one of Indonesia’s top exports.

Recent estimates show that 40% of Indonesian coral reefs is in poor condition (=25% coral cover) and only 6% is in excellent condition (>75% coral cover) with W Indonesia in the worst shape (Suharsono 2000, in Nontji 2000). It has been estimated that 30- 40% of original seagrass meadows has been degraded (Fortes 1995) primarily due to sedimentation (Talaue-McManus 2000). Threats to mangroves are mainly due to conversion to shrimp ponds and logging (Spalding et al. 1997).

Global warming and sea level rise are other potential problems (GOI 1997) as had already been evidenced in the past (Pulau Seribu; Brown and Suharsono 1990) and by the mass bleaching event of 1998 (Bali; Zamany et al. 1999). Volcanoes, earthquakes, and tsunamis are natural disturbances to Indonesia’s coral reefs (Nontji 2000).

Information on the status of the coral reefs and other habitats within MPAs is scarce, except for the marine national parks where management plans have been or are being developed, and at a few other sites that have been studied by research institutes or environmental NGOs for their outstanding conservation values and threats. For example, the escalating pressure from tourism development and pollution at Kepuluan Seribu has triggered intensive studies and monitoring by UNESCO and LIPI since the
80’s (Harger 1988). The situation both at Pulau Sangalaki and Pulau Semama is fairly well understood because of the turtle conservation projects of WWF and PHPA. Laut Banda has attracted the attention of international and local scientific communities because of its special geological and ecological characteristics as demonstrated by the rapid regeneration of coral reefs after a major volcanic eruption in the late 80’s.

Siltation from land-based sources, tourism activities and overfishing are the next most serious threats to most sites, notably Kepuluan Seribu and Bunaken Manado Tua National Parks. Impacts from these threats are often inter-related; development of tourist resorts often leads to increased coastal erosion and siltation as well as the demand for seafood. Industrial pollution including oil is particularly serious at sites near major cities, ports or marine traffic routes.

There are no management activities for majority of the MPAs; only minimal levels of management in the marine national parks and some NGO activities are evident in a few sites. Despite the drafting of a management plan in 1982 and a zoning plan in 1986, Kepulauan Seribu National Park is not fully managed as of 1995. The decade-long delay was a result of unsolved inter-agency jurisdictional disputes and island ownership confusion, lack of financial and human resources, and inability to reach consensus over the zoning plan (Hutomo et al. 1993). Although conflicts over the zoning plan appeared to have been solved in 1992, the revised zoning plan has yet to be implemented. As in many other popular tourist destinations, Kepulauan Seribu suffers a great deal of environmental impacts as tourism grows hastily without comprehensive planning. Despite the tremendous growth in revenue derived from tourism (80,000 visitors in 1991), less than 5% of the local population is employed in this industry. This has important implications as it worsens the conflicts of interest between the two major users - local fishermen and tourism developers/ operators; stimulates resentment among the local community, and is unable to substantially reduce fishery pressure by taking away parts of the fishing labour.

At Bunaken Manado Tua National Park, disagreement among national and local agencies over the jurisdictional boundary of the park and responsibility sharing has been the major obstacle to management. As in Kepulauan Seribu and many other heavily used sites, a conflict exists between maximizing economic development and sustaining natural resources and environmental integrity. The lack of a clear land tenure system and sitespecific strategy for tourism development often resulted in competing land-uses and environmental degradation because of overuse. Management however has since improved.

The draft management plan of Taka Bone Rate National Park completed in 1994 awaits implementation (EMDI 1994). The plan points out repeatedly the importance of inter-agency coordination and the role of NGOs and community groups in the planning, implementation and development of the park. WWF had launched two community marine conservation awareness programmes at Taka Bone Rate and Aru Strict Nature Reserve in 1994 that would contribute to the future development of the two areas (WWF 1994, Hitipeuw et al. 1994). The other two marine national parks, Karimunjawa and Teluk Cenderawasih do not yet have a management plan and are not being managed. The marine extensions of Ujung Kulon declared in 1992 receive minimal protective effort. In contrast to all the above, Bali Barat Marine Reserve is afforded an effective level of protection. Upon the request of the Department of Forestry and since 1995, The Nature Conservancy (TNC) has been assisting the Komodo National Park’s (KNP) authority in developing the marine component of the park. A combination of strategies that include enforcement, monitoring, and alternative livelihood strategies are being tested and implemented. A 25-year management plan has recently been developed for the marine area of Komodo and was signed June 2000 by the local government, head of the park, and the central government (Pet et al. 2000).

Despite a very early start in the traditional “sasi” and much aid from intergovernmental (Food and Agriculture Organization, and United Nations Development Programme), international (WWF, and The Nature Conservancy) and national non-government organisations, management has not been able to keep pace with the expanding protected areas network. Causes include the lack of funds, training and capable managerial personnel and consequent lack of organisational capability, technical personnel, motivation and enforcement. Personnel and capabilities were originally oriented towards the management of the terrestrial environment. There is also an inadequate management framework for identifying and controlling resource use, excessive centralization in management and low local community participation (SME-GOI 1992).

The total number of existing and proposed parks, reserves and protected areas, for example, is over 700, including marine areas. Mangroves are not well represented in the current protected areas system. Of the 700, some 79 sites are priority in terms of biodiversity protection, but only 31 (including terrestrial) have complete management plans, and not all have been implemented (World Bank 1994). Specifically, of the six Marine National Parks, only three have management plans being implemented (Hopley and Suharsono 2000). A large part of the 368 established protected areas has not been surveyed, mapped or has clear boundaries (ADB 1995). Most other sites have not even been accurately surveyed or mapped. There are also conflicts between national and local plans, conservation objectives and actual use (including mining and oil exploration initiatives). Fortunately, management is being directed towards greater integration; local communities are being involved and their concerns addressed (SME-GOI 1992).

Poverty, low public awareness and participation are also major stumbling blocks. The Government of Indonesia launched the Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program (COREMAP) in 1998 for the protection, rehabilitation and sustainable use of coral reefs and associated ecosystems through co-management (i.e. with local government and local communities). This 15-year programme (1998-2013) covers 10 provinces (Maluku, Irian Jaya, South, Southeast, North Sulawesi, East and West Nusa Tenggara, Riau and North and West Sumatra). The major initiatives of COREMAP Phase 1included public awareness campaigns, pilot community-based management, institutional development activities, an information and training network and development of a Monitoring, Control and Surveillance system.

The Indonesian Institute of Science has field stations in the vicinity of coral reefs and monitors some of these areas: Ambon and Tual (Maluku), Biak (Irian Jaya), Bitung (North Sulawesi) and Mataram (Lombok). Six state universities assigned to develop marine science have field stations as well (though it is not known whether they monitor such areas): Universitas Riau in Pekanbaru (Sumatra), Bogor Agricultural University (West Java), Diponegoro University in Semarang (central Java), Hasanuddin University in Makassar (South Sulawesi), Sam Ratulangi University in Manado (North Sulawesi), Pattimura Universityin Ambon (Maluku). Patrolling and law enforcement have been intensified in the waters of KNP. Researches in KNP directed at identifying reef fish spawning aggregation sites and at understanding the patterns in use in these sites by different fish indicate that protection of these sites from intensive fishing is vital for the reef fish stocks.

3.7 Gaps in the MPA System
The existing MPAs are quite well spread across the archipelago and cover all biogeographic divisions except Division I, with more in the larger and more complex divisions such as Divisions II and III and some concentration in western Java (Table 3.2).

With the proposed MPAs gazetted and effectively managed, the major gap, i.e. west Sumatra, will be represented by the MPA system. However, the gap in Biogeographic Division I, the islands between the southern tip of Peninsular Malaysia and western end of Kalimantan, will remain unrepresented. The political situation of these islands may have to be considered.

3.8. Priority Sites
This Review has rated 10 of the MPAs as having regional/global significance (Table 3.3). The number of selected sites may increase, especially when sites in east Indonesia are better known. Although Pulau Krakatau Strict Marine Nature Reserve has been declared part of Ujung Kulon National Park in 1983 (UNEP/IUCN 1988), it is not managed as such because it falls under a different province. Among these high priority sites, Teluk Cenderawasih, Laut Banda and Karimunjawa have been given regional priority in the IUCN/CNPPA Global Representative MPA System Programme, based largely on their complex and relatively pristine ecosystems and biogeographic representativeness (Kelleher et al. 1995). Ujung Kulon National Park was approved as a World Heritage Site; Komodo National Park was declared a World Heritage site and a Man and Biosphere Reserve, and Tanjung Puting has been proposed as Biosphere Reserve. These global recognitions are attributed mainly to the presence of significant wetland or endangered and endemic fauna, noticeably the Javan Rhino (Rhinoceros sondaicus) in Ujung Kulon, Komodo Dragon (Varanus komodoensis) in Komodo and the Orangutan, and extensive mangrove and swamp forests in Tanjung Puting. Although there is limited detailed information on the marine ecosystems of these three sites, Ujung Kulon (including Pulau Krakatau) is known to have rich coral reefs, and provides nesting sites for green and hawksbill turtles and the estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus). The waters around Komodo have rich coral reefs and are frequented by dugong, sperm whales (Physeteridus macrocephalus), blue whales and turtles (UNEP/IUCN 1988). Being an extensive mangrove system, Tanjung Puting undoubtedly plays a vital role in sustaining many marine species and resources.

Taka Bone Rate, the largest atoll in Indonesia and one of the largest in the world, is rated highly as it is still in relatively good condition despite facing increasing exploitative pressure, especially from external fishing companies (WWF Indonesia 1994). Sangalaki and Semama are important green and hawksbill turtle nesting sites, which if managed as one, and jointly with the turtle conservation programmes in Sabah and the Philippines, would yield high conservation achievement. There may, however, be some difficulties in managing Semama because of local objections to discontinue turtle egg concessions.

Seven nationally important sites have been identified including Jamursba Medi (proposed nature reserve), which is a very important Leatherback turtle nesting site, and Bunaken Manado Tua National Park, which may be used as a management demonstration site for many of the MPAs not yet managed, especially sites with coral reefs suitable for marine tourism that are also exploited for local fisheries. Three other sites - Teluk Raja Ampat at the northwest tip of Irian Jaya, Kep. Karimata west of Kalimantan and Tujuh Belas Pulau Nature Reserve off southern Sulawesi - require immediate surveys to confirm their conservation potential to warrant national priority.

3.9. Priority Actions

A. Update and complete the national inventory of all existing and proposed MPAs and protected areas on the coast and verify their official and management status.

B. Review the designation of existing MPAs, and revise these to accommodate traditional uses and sustainable development where appropriate. Many of the Strict Nature Reserves will probably have to be re-designated as Multiple-Use Reserves or Parks to make their management feasible.

C. Define clear boundaries in the gazettement of new MPAs and revise boundaries and zonation of existing MPAs where necessary. Manage adjacent and linked PAs as one and emphasise buffer zone planning and management.

D. Considering the vulnerability of MPAs to external influences (including terrigenous processes and hydrological forces that may carry pollutants from outside), employ integrated coastal zone management, incorporating integrated buffer zones linking land and sea, and improve communication and cooperation between authorities responsible for land and sea.

E. Switch the emphasis on small, isolated, highly protected MPAs to a system of MPAs allowing multiple-use principles and networking.

F. Conduct strategic assessment of manpower requirements during the planning and management of individual MPAs and the MPA system.

G. Develop unified survey and monitoring procedures, mapping, GIS and database systems within PHPA to facilitate overall planning of and exchange within the MPA system.

H. Strengthen NGO capabilities in community conservation programmes.

I. Consider the need for more and more effective marine protected areas where these are least represented especially the bull’s eye of coral reef diversity in the world (Wallace 2000, East Sulawesi sub-zone III-15), and also the Indonesian waters between East and West Malaysia (I-Indonesia, where destructive fishing is also high) and the Strait of Malacca (transboundary VI-20 and VI-22).

J. Continue to pursue the goal of PHPA (1992) to establish a 30 M-ha. network of marine protected areas by the year 2000.

K. Other priority action points identified are: (SME-GOI 1992)

1) Integrated Planning and Resource Development in Coastal Zones;

2) Monitoring and Protecting Coastal and Marine Environments;

3) Sustainable Utilization of Marine Resources;

4) Strengthening and Empowering Coastal Communities;

5) Sustainable Development of Small Islands;

6) Maintaining Security of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ);

7) Managing the Impacts of Climate Change and Tidal Waves.

8) Managing the Protected Areas System More Effectively (see above);

9) Conserving Biodiversity in Agroecosystems and Non-Protected Production Areas;

10) Ex Situ Conservation of Biological Diversity;

11) Protecting Traditional Community Knowledge and Improving Knowledge on Conservation of Biodiversity;

12) Developing and Maintaining a Sustainable Biological Diversity Utilization System, Including Equitable Sharing of Benefits

13) Data for management and continued training of scientific and management personnel (Hopley and Suharsono 2000)<

14) Training of managers and facilitators for community-based coastal management (ICRI 1997)

L. See also the “National Policy and Strategy for Coral Reefs in Indonesia” being prepared by COREMAP and Bogor Agricultural University.

 

Based on the questionnaire results for 10 better known coral reef sites, the hunting of endangered species (turtles, dugongs and sharks) and destructive fishing practices have been perceived as causing the most serious impacts (Figure 3.1)